អាការៈអរកខិបកខុបហួសហេតុ ពេលទទួលជោគជ័យ និង អាការៈអស់សង្ឃឹម ចុះចាញ់ ពេលជួបនិងបរាជ័យ គឺអ្នកដែលប្រគល់ខ្លួនឱ្យស្ថានការគ្រប់គ្រង តើគេជាម្ចាស់លើខ្លួនឯងម្តេចនិងកើតទៅ?
យើងត្រូវប្រើជីវិតឲ្យពេញទំហឹង ម្តងហើយម្តងទៀតជាបន្តបន្ទាប់ឧ្យប្រៀបដូចជាយើងគ្មានថ្ងៃណានឹងស្លាប់ឡើយ
ប្រសិនបើយើងប្រកាន់ខ្ជាប់ទៅលើច្បាប់នេះបានយើងនឹងជ្រើសរើស
ធ្វើតែកិច្ចការណាដែលសំខាន់ពិតប្រាកដ៕
TEACHING METHODS
It is important that teachers learn to use a variety of teaching methodologies in order to cater for the range of learning needs and requirements that are present within most class environments. Within this section a variety of teaching methodologies will be explored and their various advantages and disadvantages outlined.
TEACHING TECHNIQUES
TEACHING TECHNIQUES
EXPLICIT TEACHING
Explicit teaching is important within the classroom and therefore should not be pushed aside when addressing a range of learning strategies. To help students progress in a particular area, specific knowledge and skills may need to be taught to the students. This often provides tools that students can use to assist them in their learning and can be evident in all areas of the curriculum. It is important that teachers are explicit within all teaching practices in order to further develop student learning.
For more information on the importance of explicit teaching visit www.myread.org/explicit.htm
In order to access this site copy and paste the address over to the address bar on your web browser
COMMAND STYLE
The underlying principle of the 'command style' is that teachers should be the sole authoritarian figure within their classroom. Within such approaches the teacher is required to maintain absolute control over the class and therefore must execute a strict and highly regulated lesson structure. The students within the class are required to comply with the commands of the teacher and therefore execute all activities to a required standard and within a given time limit. Mosston and Ashworth state that the command style of teaching occurs when 'the teacher makes the maximum number of choices, while the learner makes only minimal decisions' (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002: p.79). Within this methodology it is the role of the teacher to initiate all learning sequences, while students are required to follow and adhere to all rules and restrictions implemented throughout the lesson (Mosston, 1966: p.21). Mosston describes the defining characteristic of the command style as 'precision performance - reproducing a predicted response or performance on cue' (2002: p.76). This particular methodology therefore places students within a 'closed' environment, which incorporates pre-determined or predictable cues followed by a standard response.
Continuous use of the command style will produce individuals who are able to reproduce movements in response to a predictable cue, however, be less likely to reason or learn for themselves and therefore compete adequately within unfamiliar environments. Such approaches often fail to foster 'deeper' learning, as students will often find such approaches uninspiring and therefore reproduce movements only to avoid reprimand. Students will therefore often fail to adequately learn the basic fundamentals of the technique and as a result struggle to perform during delayed retention tests (Wuest & Bucher, 1999). This approach has a number of positive and negative repercussions when implemented within the classroom.
Advantages
" Greater likelihood of tasks being completed on time.
" The teacher has ultimate control over the class.
" Greater potential for lesson to be executed as planned.
" Guaranteed of achieving basic curriculum objectives (not ability of learners to think independently).
" Will assist discipline and is therefore useful within classes where this is an issue.
" Allows teacher to more adequately monitor key safety issues and is therefore useful when addressing activities such as discus, javelin, shot-put, adventure activities etc.
" Has potential to achieve accuracy and precision in performance and is therefore useful when a predetermined model must be adhered to, or a synchronised performance is required (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002: p.76).
Disadvantages
" No student input into lesson and therefore may fail to foster 'deeper learning'.
" Does not allow for creative thinking by students.
" Assumes all individuals are of the same abilities and motivations and therefore restricts or hurries individual progressions.
" Decreases social interaction and subsequently levels of self-esteem and motivation.
" Can lead to negative views of education thus counteracting the outcomes outlined within the SACSA Framework with regard to creating a positive disposition towards all areas of education (DETE - SACSA Framework, 2004).
TEACHING BY TASK
Analysis
The 'teaching by task' methodology was developed upon notions of personal practice, independent learning and individual development. The task style of teaching allows students to develop at their own rate and in their own direction. This particular methodology empowers students to take responsibility for their own learning and therefore fosters the possibility of 'deeper' learning across a range of different areas. Mosston describes the nine decisions that are transferred from the teacher to the learner within this style. These are: "Location, Order of tasks, Starting time per task, Pace and rhythm, stopping time per task, Interval, Initiating questions for clarification, Attire and appearance, and Posture" (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002: p.96) As a result of such student empowerment a deeper appreciation for education can be fostered, thus making ongoing participation within all subject areas more likely.
Advantages
" The teacher maintains control over what is being learned and therefore can ensure that the lesson meets the needs and requirements of the curriculum.
" Within this methodology the teacher is able to move amongst the class and supply individual feedback while providing extension activities as required.
" This style of teaching increases social interaction between students and therefore increases motivation levels, self-confidence as well as ones ability to work both independently and as a member of a group (Harrison & Blakemore, 1983: p.325).
" Allows the teacher to provide more individual feedback to members of the class. Such feedback can improve student motivation either through positive reinforcement or through the improvement gained as a result of technique development.
" This particular methodology allows students to experiment with a variety of skills and techniques while still allowing the teacher to direct student learning.
" This methodology allows students to develop at their own rate and in their own direction. Individuals need to be provided with opportunities to refine their skills, techniques and knowledge within a safe and non-threatening environment.
Disadvantages
" Little student input into the lesson, as the teacher essentially remains in control.
" This style does not allow for a definitive standard to be achieved. The style is therefore not as useful when addressing skills or knowledge areas where specific techniques, movements or products are required.
" There is a greater possibility that students will be distracted from the task when compared with the command style of teaching. The activities of students are more difficult to supervise and therefore distractions are more likely.
" While students are able to experiment with the knowledge and skills presented creative thinking is not promoted. This particular style therefore promotes motor development more so than cognitive development.
" This approach is not useful when addressing dangerous activities such as the javelin.
INDIVIDUAL PROGRESSION
According to Mosston and Ashworth, the defining characteristic of the 'individual progression' methodology is that "learners with varying degrees of knowledge and skill can participate in the same task by selecting a level of difficulty at which they can perform" (2002: p.156). This particular methodology is therefore "a design of subject mater manipulated in such a manner as to provide the learner with full opportunity for self motivated learning, self-assessment, and decision making over a relatively prolonged period of time" (Mosston, 1966:p. 97).
The 'individual progression' methodology allows students to participate within activities regardless of their individual skill levels, understanding and levels of motivation (Harrison & Blakemore, 1983: p.327). Due to the nature of the methodology students are able to participate within a non-threatening environment, therefore gaining subsequent experiences of success. The structure of activities utilising this methodology incorporate only minimal competition and therefore allow students to remain unthreatened, thus further fostering the development of positive attitudes towards all areas of the curriculum. This particular style of teaching allows students to challenge their own knowledge and skill levels and therefore set their own goals with regard to their future development. Mosston & Ashworth support such a notions as they state, "establishing a performance goal for each level reinforces acquisition of the content (skill) and prevents learners from haphazardly 'doing' the levels, checking answers, and moving on" (2002: p.163).
Advantages
" Students who are experienced in a given area and therefore already competent are not required to complete activities at the same level as beginners. This means that individuals with higher knowledge and skill levels can be extended with advanced activities.
" Beginner students or individuals with lesser skills are able to develop at their own rate and in their own direction. This allows for a positive and non-threatening environment to be created and therefore fosters ongoing participation within all curriculum areas.
" The 'Individual progression' methodology emanates from the SACSA social justice policy, as it provides equal opportunity for all individuals to participate and experience success. The SACSA Framework states that a commitment to social justice underpins all education learning areas, and therefore all individuals have the right to experience positive and meaningful education experiences. This means that individuals of all abilities, skill levels and knowledge must be catered for within all educational lessons (DETE - SACSA Framework, 2004).
" This method can be very satisfying for the teacher as individuals are more likely to experience success and the lessons are easy to control.
" This method has the greatest potential to build self-esteem and therefore increase student enjoyment. This will occur as a result of increases in performance coupled with the ongoing experience of success (Harrison & Blakemore, 1983: p.327).
Disadvantages
" Students may not take the ability grouping seriously or may overestimate their ability in a particular area.
" There may be feelings of inferiority by students in the lower group, causing concern as 'students that feel their abilities are inferior to those of their classmates and therefore will not achieve success; nor will they be motivated towards accomplishment' (Singer & Dick, 1980: p.64).
" Teacher contact time may not be divided equally as individuals with poorer skill and knowledge levels often require greater levels of feedback from the teacher whereas individuals of advanced skill and knowledge levels often require more extension activities. This methodology is therefore very labour intensive for the teacher to administer.
GUIDED DISCOVERY
Mosston states that each of the previous methodologies discussed within this paper do not engage students within operations and class functioning. Mosston further states that within these approaches students are 'not required or induced; neither do they develop spontaneously' (1966: p.143). In contrast, allowing individuals to discover the solutions to their own problems allows them to develop the skills and abilities needed to enquire, compare, invent, discover, reflect and draw subsequent conclusions regarding a variety of issues pertinent to that particular individual within that particular environment (Mosston, 1966).
The intention of the guided discovery method is for teachers to formulate the underlying structure and content of their lessons in a manner that forces students to discover the answers to a range of problems for themselves (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002: p.212). Within this particular methodology it is the role of the teacher to guide and facilitate student learning in order to allow student discovery as well as promote ongoing experimentation and participation.
Advantages
" Increases student critical awareness.
" Empowering students to discover their own answers allows them to control their learning, and therefore they will be more likely to retain information.
" Good for game play and tactical aspects of sports.
" The structure of drills force students to use teamwork and therefore fosters the development of student abilities to "work flexibly and develop cooperation with others as part of the team" (DETE - SACSA Framework, 2004).
Disadvantages
" Students have little input into the planning and development of their lesson and therefore only the requirements of the teacher and the curriculum are addressed.
" Students can become dependent on guidance and direction to find answers.
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving is the most independent of learning methods studied within this unit and therefore completely empowers the students to initiate their own learning. This particular methodology is similar to the 'guided discovery' methodology, as the teacher makes all decisions about the content of the questions and therefore the correct answers; however the role of arranging sequences that lead to the correct solutions are placed in the hands of the learner (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002: p.237). The teacher therefore must assume the role of the facilitator, and be prepared to provide students with feedback rather than solutions (Harrison & Blakemore, 1983: p.329). Positive reinforcement is a very important element of the problem solving process, as it will further promote students to provide their ideas, thus further developing individual motivation levels and personal confidence (Mosston, 1966).
Advantages
" Problem solving emanates directly from the SACSA Framework, which recognises independent thinking as a key-learning outcome. The Framework states that it is important "to develop learners who have the capacity to generate and evaluate ideas and solutions" within all subject areas and within a variety of activities (DETE - SACSA Framework, 2003).
" Problem solving allows for the development of creativity among students (Harrison & Blakemore, 1983: p.329).
" Empowering students to discover their own answers once again allows students to control their own learning, thus increasing the likelihood that they will retain the information.
Disadvantages
" Inability to achieve the answers may result in a lack of motivation
" Can only be used with students who are already able to take responsibility for their own learning. If students are not motivated to learn, they will be more likely to be distracted from the task.
" Can take up a lot of time, as "students must have time and a supportive environment in which to work out solutions" (Harrison & Blakemore, 1983: p.329).
" The outcomes of the lesson may not be achieved if the teacher's preparation is not adequate.
" Potential for a lack of teacher control over the class
LEARNING METHODS
Individuals learn in different ways. Within this section a variety of learning methods will be explored and their various advantages and disadvantages outlined. This section includes an analysis of Dobono's problem solving method and explores its usefulness within the classroom. A multiple intelligence survey is included and an analysis of each type of intelligence can be viewed.
PROBLEM BASED LEARNING (PBL)
Analysis
Problem based learning allows students more responsibility for their own education and not solely dependant on their teachers. This strategy requires that the teacher is responsible to provide the educational materials and guidance that assist learning. In the PBL learning process students often, in small groups, encounter a problem and apply previous knowledge on the topic as well as researching a range of information resources relevant to help solve the problem at hand. During this process students are encouraged to self and peer assess their progress, which helps to develop their collaborative or team learning skills.
PBL is a fun and motivating approach to learning and is most effective when students are working with real life problems. This proves more interesting for the students and links some relevance between their school study and their own lives. When students are working with a problem they can identify what they need to learn and what resources to use to accomplish that learning. This allows the student to design their learning to meet individual needs as all students have differing knowledge and experience. Often students are given choice to the way they approach a particular activity and in some cases the topic area or problem to be solved, often referred to as 'student lead learning'.
ADVANTAGES
" Engage the students in the problems they face in life and society with relevant skills and enthusiasm.
" Teaches effective problem solving skills using a flexible and usable knowledge base.
" Utilizes effective self-directed learning skills to continue learning as a life-long habit.
" Teaches to monitor and assess the depth of their knowledge, problem solving and self-directed learning skills.
" Involves students in effective group based work.
DISADVANTAGES
" Students may get distracted working in groups.
" Teachers are required to know effective student guidance skills and when and how to apply them, and teachers may require further tuition in this field.
" Not all students can be expected to adapt to and succeed when introduced to PBL. Factors to consider may include student backgrounds, learning difficulties, social interaction skills, confidence levels and behavioral qualities.
PBL often involves cross curriculum areas that require students to use a variety of subject areas to help solve a problem. This is important because solving real world problems requires a range of skills and knowledge.
Summary of PBL
The PBL strategy helps prepare students to become effective and efficient learners, teamwork members and future problem solvers essential in today's society. The essential key to PBL is that the topics and activities undertaken must be relevant and valued in the real world.
ACTIVE LEARNING
Analysis
Active learning involves students not only doing things but thinking about the things they are doing. Positive strategies include students working on activities in pairs where they are encouraged to share and think together. Individual think and write exercises involve students in linking a writing activity to their thinking. Another effective strategy is involving students in structured question and answer sessions which require a critical thinking process as well as a discussion which involves understanding, previous knowledge and prediction of the topic. A more complex strategy may involve students in individual or group project based assignments that require significant research into the topic.
A critical element relating to all active learning teaching strategies is the link between the activity, assignment or discussion session and a relevant topic. Case studies are an effective way of utilising the above strategies in a current or relevant topic.
ADVANTAGES
" Students can learn to work and think in pairs and share their knowledge.
" Students can learn to effectively link a creative writing exercise to their thinking.
" Students can adopt valuable thinking processes when answering questions.
" Students can learn to interact in group discussions reflecting their understanding of the topic at hand and predict outcomes.
DISADVANTAGES
" Students can be mislead in discussions and make connections with irrelevant knowledge.
" Students may get distracted when working in pairs.
Summary of active learning
The active learning strategy helps create an environment where students can think about their work and share their understandings. Students are also encouraged to use their understandings and knowledge to predict possible outcomes within the learning activity.
References
DETE, SACSA Framework, [accessed on line 16th April 2004]
Harrison, J. M. & Blakemore, C. L., (1983), Instructional strategies for secondary school physical education, 2nd Edn, Wm. C. Brown, Iowa, USA
Mosston, M. (1966), Teaching Physical Education, Merril Books, Ohio, USA,
Mosston, M. & Ashworth, S., (2002), Teaching Physical Education; 5th Edn, Cummings, San Francisco,
Singer, R. N. & Dick, W., (1980), Teaching Physical Education, A Systems Approach., Houghton Mifflin Company, USA
Wuest, D., & Bucher, C., (1999), Foundations of Physical Education and Sport, 13th Edn., McGraw-Hill
PROBLEM BASED LEARNING (PBL)
Analysis
Problem based learning allows students more responsibility for their own education and not solely dependant on their teachers. This strategy requires that the teacher is responsible to provide the educational materials and guidance that assist learning. In the PBL learning process students often, in small groups, encounter a problem and apply previous knowledge on the topic as well as researching a range of information resources relevant to help solve the problem at hand. During this process students are encouraged to self and peer assess their progress, which helps to develop their collaborative or team learning skills.
PBL is a fun and motivating approach to learning and is most effective when students are working with real life problems. This proves more interesting for the students and links some relevance between their school study and their own lives. When students are working with a problem they can identify what they need to learn and what resources to use to accomplish that learning. This allows the student to design their learning to meet individual needs as all students have differing knowledge and experience. Often students are given choice to the way they approach a particular activity and in some cases the topic area or problem to be solved, often referred to as 'student lead learning'.
ADVANTAGES
" Engage the students in the problems they face in life and society with relevant skills and enthusiasm.
" Teaches effective problem solving skills using a flexible and usable knowledge base.
" Utilizes effective self-directed learning skills to continue learning as a life-long habit.
" Teaches to monitor and assess the depth of their knowledge, problem solving and self-directed learning skills.
" Involves students in effective group based work.
DISADVANTAGES
" Students may get distracted working in groups.
" Teachers are required to know effective student guidance skills and when and how to apply them, and teachers may require further tuition in this field.
" Not all students can be expected to adapt to and succeed when introduced to PBL. Factors to consider may include student backgrounds, learning difficulties, social interaction skills, confidence levels and behavioral qualities.
PBL often involves cross curriculum areas that require students to use a variety of subject areas to help solve a problem. This is important because solving real world problems requires a range of skills and knowledge.
Summary of PBL
The PBL strategy helps prepare students to become effective and efficient learners, teamwork members and future problem solvers essential in today's society. The essential key to PBL is that the topics and activities undertaken must be relevant and valued in the real world.
ACTIVE LEARNING
Analysis
Active learning involves students not only doing things but thinking about the things they are doing. Positive strategies include students working on activities in pairs where they are encouraged to share and think together. Individual think and write exercises involve students in linking a writing activity to their thinking. Another effective strategy is involving students in structured question and answer sessions which require a critical thinking process as well as a discussion which involves understanding, previous knowledge and prediction of the topic. A more complex strategy may involve students in individual or group project based assignments that require significant research into the topic.
A critical element relating to all active learning teaching strategies is the link between the activity, assignment or discussion session and a relevant topic. Case studies are an effective way of utilising the above strategies in a current or relevant topic.
ADVANTAGES
" Students can learn to work and think in pairs and share their knowledge.
" Students can learn to effectively link a creative writing exercise to their thinking.
" Students can adopt valuable thinking processes when answering questions.
" Students can learn to interact in group discussions reflecting their understanding of the topic at hand and predict outcomes.
DISADVANTAGES
" Students can be mislead in discussions and make connections with irrelevant knowledge.
" Students may get distracted when working in pairs.
Summary of active learning
The active learning strategy helps create an environment where students can think about their work and share their understandings. Students are also encouraged to use their understandings and knowledge to predict possible outcomes within the learning activity.
References
DETE, SACSA Framework, [accessed on line 16th April 2004]
Harrison, J. M. & Blakemore, C. L., (1983), Instructional strategies for secondary school physical education, 2nd Edn, Wm. C. Brown, Iowa, USA
Mosston, M. (1966), Teaching Physical Education, Merril Books, Ohio, USA,
Mosston, M. & Ashworth, S., (2002), Teaching Physical Education; 5th Edn, Cummings, San Francisco,
Singer, R. N. & Dick, W., (1980), Teaching Physical Education, A Systems Approach., Houghton Mifflin Company, USA
Wuest, D., & Bucher, C., (1999), Foundations of Physical Education and Sport, 13th Edn., McGraw-Hill
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
“IT'S NOT HOW SMART YOU ARE -
IT'S HOW YOU ARE SMART!”
Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
VISUAL/SPATIAL
- children who learn best visually and organizing things spatially. They like to see what you are talking about in order to understand. They enjoy charts, graphs, maps, tables, illustrations, art, puzzles, costumes - anything eye catching.
• VERBAL/LINGUISTIC
- children who demonstrate strength in the language arts: speaking, writing, reading, listening. These students have always been successful in traditional classrooms because their intelligence lends itself to traditional teaching.
• MATHEMATICAL/LOGICAL
- children who display an aptitude for numbers, reasoning and problem solving. This is the other half of the children who typically do well in traditional classrooms where teaching is logically sequenced and students are asked to conform.
• BODILY/KINESTHETIC
- children who experience learning best through activity: games, movement, hands-on tasks, building. These children were often labeled "overly active" in traditional classrooms where they were told to sit and be still!
• MUSICAL/RHYTHMIC
- children who learn well through songs, patterns, rhythms, instruments and musical expression. It is easy to overlook children with this intelligence in traditional education.
• INTRAPERSONAL
- children who are especially in touch with their own feelings, values and ideas. They may tend to be more reserved, but they are actually quite intuitive about what they learn and how it relates to themselves.
• INTERPERSONAL
- children who are noticeably people oriented and outgoing, and do their learning cooperatively in groups or with a partner. These children may have typically been identified as "talkative" or " too concerned about being social" in a traditional setting.
• NATURALIST
- children who love the outdoors, animals, field trips. More than this, though, these students love to pick up on subtle differences in meanings. The traditional classroom has not been accommodating to these children.
• EXISTENTIALIST
- children who learn in the context of where humankind stands in the "big picture" of existence. They ask "Why are we here?" and "What is our role in the world?" This intelligence is seen in the discipline of philosophy.
Teachers are now working on assimilating this knowledge into their strategies for helping children learn. While it is too early to tell all the ramifications for this research, it is clear that the day is past where educators teach the text book and it is the dawn of educators teaching each child according to their orientation to the world.
-Walter McKenzie
1999 Walter McKenzie
http://surfaquarium.com/MI/mi.htm
There are surveys available that can determine 'how you are smart'. In order to view this survey and therefore discover the way you think click here
References
http://cte.udel.edu/pbl.htm
http://cte.udel.edu/learnstyle.htm
http://www.pbli.org/pbl/pbl.htm
http://www.stbrigev.adl.catholic.edu.au/methodology.htm
http://www.dmu.ac.uk/~jamesa/learning/bloomtax.htm
http://www.betterthanabook.net/98.htm
VISUAL/SPATIAL
- children who learn best visually and organizing things spatially. They like to see what you are talking about in order to understand. They enjoy charts, graphs, maps, tables, illustrations, art, puzzles, costumes - anything eye catching.
• VERBAL/LINGUISTIC
- children who demonstrate strength in the language arts: speaking, writing, reading, listening. These students have always been successful in traditional classrooms because their intelligence lends itself to traditional teaching.
• MATHEMATICAL/LOGICAL
- children who display an aptitude for numbers, reasoning and problem solving. This is the other half of the children who typically do well in traditional classrooms where teaching is logically sequenced and students are asked to conform.
• BODILY/KINESTHETIC
- children who experience learning best through activity: games, movement, hands-on tasks, building. These children were often labeled "overly active" in traditional classrooms where they were told to sit and be still!
• MUSICAL/RHYTHMIC
- children who learn well through songs, patterns, rhythms, instruments and musical expression. It is easy to overlook children with this intelligence in traditional education.
• INTRAPERSONAL
- children who are especially in touch with their own feelings, values and ideas. They may tend to be more reserved, but they are actually quite intuitive about what they learn and how it relates to themselves.
• INTERPERSONAL
- children who are noticeably people oriented and outgoing, and do their learning cooperatively in groups or with a partner. These children may have typically been identified as "talkative" or " too concerned about being social" in a traditional setting.
• NATURALIST
- children who love the outdoors, animals, field trips. More than this, though, these students love to pick up on subtle differences in meanings. The traditional classroom has not been accommodating to these children.
• EXISTENTIALIST
- children who learn in the context of where humankind stands in the "big picture" of existence. They ask "Why are we here?" and "What is our role in the world?" This intelligence is seen in the discipline of philosophy.
Teachers are now working on assimilating this knowledge into their strategies for helping children learn. While it is too early to tell all the ramifications for this research, it is clear that the day is past where educators teach the text book and it is the dawn of educators teaching each child according to their orientation to the world.
-Walter McKenzie
1999 Walter McKenzie
http://surfaquarium.com/MI/mi.htm
There are surveys available that can determine 'how you are smart'. In order to view this survey and therefore discover the way you think click here
References
http://cte.udel.edu/pbl.htm
http://cte.udel.edu/learnstyle.htm
http://www.pbli.org/pbl/pbl.htm
http://www.stbrigev.adl.catholic.edu.au/methodology.htm
http://www.dmu.ac.uk/~jamesa/learning/bloomtax.htm
http://www.betterthanabook.net/98.htm
DEBONO'S 'THINKING HATS'
Debono’s thinking hats were developed in order to illustrate the various methods of thinking utilised by individuals within problem solving processes. Each of the hats represent a method of thinking commonly used by individuals within problem solving. It is hoped that through such representations more individuals will be able to recognise the various methods of thinking that they utilise and therefore better understand their own thinking processes. It is also hoped that individuals will be able to better understand the thinking processes of others and therefore even incorporate some of these processes within their own thinking. Included below is a description of each of the hats and the thinking processes that they represent. Their use will be illustrated through the analysis of a simple classroom issue. By doing so the problem can be more easily deconstructed and therefore an answer more easily sought.
Issue – Students are talking while their teacher is talking
White Hat – Objective (state the facts)
- Students are talking while the teacher is talking
- There is noise and therefore other students are distracted and can’t hear the teacher
- Students don’t know what to do once instructions are given
- Many students become distracted and off task resulting in the failure to complete work
Red Hat – Subjective (state the emotions)
- The teacher feels offended
- Students become frustrated because they can’t hear directions
- Those talking enjoy joking around and being heard.
Black Hat – negative aspects
- Time is wasted
- Learning is compromised
- Those speaking feel that listeners do not respect them and do not wish to hear what they are saying
Yellow Hat – positive aspects
- Everyone is able to say what is on their minds
- It can be fun
- Not only the ‘smart kids’ get to speak
- One doesn’t have to wait to share their ideas and therefore risk forgetting information
Green Hat – creative ideas that originate as a result of seeing information in a new light
- Teacher will be more aware about the amount of time they spend talking
- Teacher will try to incorporate interaction from a variety of different students rather than just the ‘smart kids’
- Students will resist the urge to say whatever is on their mind. They will think about what they have to say and wether it is relevant to the topic
- Students will take into account wether their comment will interfere with other peoples learning
Blue Hat – Sum up learning
- Teacher learns that they need to monitor the amount of time that they spend talking within the classroom
- Teacher needs to involve all students within discussions
- Teacher needs to recognise that some students need thinking time before responding. Allowing these students time to compute solutions promotes wider participation and increased learning
- Students realise that their talking makes the speaker feel unappreciated and disrespected
- Students realise that their comments are jeopardising the learning of other individuals
- Students realise that talking out of time demonstrates a lack of self-discipline and that not all comments require sharing
Summary
Utilising a variety of approaches within thinking and problem solving allows the issue to be addressed from a variety of angles, thus servicing the needs of all individuals concerned. The thinking hats are useful for learners as they illustrate the need for individuals to address problems from a variety of different angles. They also aid learners as they allow the individual to recognise any deficiencies in the way that they approach problem solving, thus allowing them to rectify such issues.
Reference
http://www.saeps.vic.edu.au/StAlbCurr/sixhats.htm
Issue – Students are talking while their teacher is talking
White Hat – Objective (state the facts)
- Students are talking while the teacher is talking
- There is noise and therefore other students are distracted and can’t hear the teacher
- Students don’t know what to do once instructions are given
- Many students become distracted and off task resulting in the failure to complete work
Red Hat – Subjective (state the emotions)
- The teacher feels offended
- Students become frustrated because they can’t hear directions
- Those talking enjoy joking around and being heard.
Black Hat – negative aspects
- Time is wasted
- Learning is compromised
- Those speaking feel that listeners do not respect them and do not wish to hear what they are saying
Yellow Hat – positive aspects
- Everyone is able to say what is on their minds
- It can be fun
- Not only the ‘smart kids’ get to speak
- One doesn’t have to wait to share their ideas and therefore risk forgetting information
Green Hat – creative ideas that originate as a result of seeing information in a new light
- Teacher will be more aware about the amount of time they spend talking
- Teacher will try to incorporate interaction from a variety of different students rather than just the ‘smart kids’
- Students will resist the urge to say whatever is on their mind. They will think about what they have to say and wether it is relevant to the topic
- Students will take into account wether their comment will interfere with other peoples learning
Blue Hat – Sum up learning
- Teacher learns that they need to monitor the amount of time that they spend talking within the classroom
- Teacher needs to involve all students within discussions
- Teacher needs to recognise that some students need thinking time before responding. Allowing these students time to compute solutions promotes wider participation and increased learning
- Students realise that their talking makes the speaker feel unappreciated and disrespected
- Students realise that their comments are jeopardising the learning of other individuals
- Students realise that talking out of time demonstrates a lack of self-discipline and that not all comments require sharing
Summary
Utilising a variety of approaches within thinking and problem solving allows the issue to be addressed from a variety of angles, thus servicing the needs of all individuals concerned. The thinking hats are useful for learners as they illustrate the need for individuals to address problems from a variety of different angles. They also aid learners as they allow the individual to recognise any deficiencies in the way that they approach problem solving, thus allowing them to rectify such issues.
Reference
http://www.saeps.vic.edu.au/StAlbCurr/sixhats.htm
LEARNING DISABILITIES
This section will explore various issues that can arise within the classroom as a result of learning disabilities. There are many different kinds of learning disabilities and as a result it becomes difficult to investigate them all. It is therefore important that teachers recognise such learning requirements within their classroom and adjust their teaching strategies accordingly. Here we have focused on two of the more common learning difficulties - Dyslexia and ADHD. This section wil also analyse some teaching considerations to be taken into account when teaching children with learning disabilities within both primary and secondary school settings.
DYSLEXIA
Patients with dyslexia showed poor thresholds for stimuli with low contrasts, low spatial or high temporal frequencies and poor sensitivity to visual motion. Reading disorder, also known as dyslexia, is one of the learning disabilities many school-aged children suffer. In this disorder, reading achievement is substantially below what would be expected for the person's age, intelligence, and educational level. Many areas of the brain are involved in reading. Abnormalities in processing in these brain areas are associated with having dyslexia. It appears that persons who have dyslexia have difficulty processing sound-based components of language. They have difficulty associating symbols (such as letters) with the sounds that these symbols have. Dyslexia does not affect thinking ability Persons who have dyslexia are often creative in learning to compensate for their disability. Reading difficulties may also arise from poor vision, decreased hearing ability, emotional problems, or behavioral disorders. Behavioral disorders, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), may also coexist with learning disorders.
Early identification of learning disabilities can help children to achieve success in learning environments. Some strategies that can help individuals with reading disorder include:
* Approaches to teaching that include audio-based instruction (audiotapes, audio texts), computer-assisted instruction, structured teaching including repetition and small-unit instruction, flashcards, and optimum position of the child in the classroom.
* Identification, evaluation, and treatment of behavioral or psychiatric problems that can coexist with learning disabilities.
* Alternative assessment measures (using different types of testing than traditional written tests).
* Assistance with emotional issues (such as self-esteem) that may accompany learning disabilities.
* Special education, if needed, though some experts advocate keeping children with dyslexia in the regular classroom.
* A strong support system for the child and family, possibly including referral to appropriate resources within the community.
References
Dimitra Hartas. ‘Dyslexia and inclusion: Assessment and support in higher education’ British Journal of Educational Psychology. Leicester: Mar 2004. Vol. 74 Part 1. pg. 130, 2
ATTENTION DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVE DISORDER (ADHD)
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a pattern of behaviors appearing in childhood that is manifested by developmentally inappropriate levels of inattention, impulsivity, or hyperactivity. In the past, a majority of mental health professionals assumed that ADHD disappeared in adolescence. However, between 30% and 70% of children classified as having ADHD continue to experience symptoms and to meet the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria as adolescents and adults
Although researchers have not found that all students classified as having ADHD exhibit low achievement (i.e., reading, writing, mathematics, spelling), some studies have shown that these students may exhibit deficits in a specific academic skill. For example, a recent study found that approximately 15% of children and adolescents classified as having ADHD presented with profiles similar to students classified as having reading disorders.
In addition to developmentally inappropriate patterns of behavior, some students classified as having ADHD also exhibit academic difficulties. Researchers who have examined the educational performance of students classified as having ADHD have suggested that they may be more likely than students without disabilities to achieve lower grades in academic subjects and lower scores on standardized tests of reading and math.
In spelling, some studies that have controlled for IQ differences have found that students classified as having ADHD score lower on standardized measures of spelling than their nondisabled peers. In math, studies have shown that students classified as having ADHD performed significantly lower than their peers without ADHD on timed tasks of math calculation, even when differences in IQ were controlled.
In addition to specific problems with one academic area such as reading, spelling, or math, researchers have reported that students classified as having ADHD exhibit handwriting difficulties; however, the reasons for these difficulties may be confounded by other factors. When controlling for visual-motor skill, for example, differences in handwriting errors between students classified as having ADHD and non-ADHD students were not significant.
References
Richard L Sparks, James Javorsky, Lois Philips. ‘College Students Classified with ADHD and the Foreign Language Requirement’ Journal of Learning Disabilities. Austin: Mar/Apr 2004. Vol. 37, Iss. 2; pg. 169, 10
DYSLEXIA
Patients with dyslexia showed poor thresholds for stimuli with low contrasts, low spatial or high temporal frequencies and poor sensitivity to visual motion. Reading disorder, also known as dyslexia, is one of the learning disabilities many school-aged children suffer. In this disorder, reading achievement is substantially below what would be expected for the person's age, intelligence, and educational level. Many areas of the brain are involved in reading. Abnormalities in processing in these brain areas are associated with having dyslexia. It appears that persons who have dyslexia have difficulty processing sound-based components of language. They have difficulty associating symbols (such as letters) with the sounds that these symbols have. Dyslexia does not affect thinking ability Persons who have dyslexia are often creative in learning to compensate for their disability. Reading difficulties may also arise from poor vision, decreased hearing ability, emotional problems, or behavioral disorders. Behavioral disorders, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), may also coexist with learning disorders.
Early identification of learning disabilities can help children to achieve success in learning environments. Some strategies that can help individuals with reading disorder include:
* Approaches to teaching that include audio-based instruction (audiotapes, audio texts), computer-assisted instruction, structured teaching including repetition and small-unit instruction, flashcards, and optimum position of the child in the classroom.
* Identification, evaluation, and treatment of behavioral or psychiatric problems that can coexist with learning disabilities.
* Alternative assessment measures (using different types of testing than traditional written tests).
* Assistance with emotional issues (such as self-esteem) that may accompany learning disabilities.
* Special education, if needed, though some experts advocate keeping children with dyslexia in the regular classroom.
* A strong support system for the child and family, possibly including referral to appropriate resources within the community.
References
Dimitra Hartas. ‘Dyslexia and inclusion: Assessment and support in higher education’ British Journal of Educational Psychology. Leicester: Mar 2004. Vol. 74 Part 1. pg. 130, 2
ATTENTION DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVE DISORDER (ADHD)
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a pattern of behaviors appearing in childhood that is manifested by developmentally inappropriate levels of inattention, impulsivity, or hyperactivity. In the past, a majority of mental health professionals assumed that ADHD disappeared in adolescence. However, between 30% and 70% of children classified as having ADHD continue to experience symptoms and to meet the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria as adolescents and adults
Although researchers have not found that all students classified as having ADHD exhibit low achievement (i.e., reading, writing, mathematics, spelling), some studies have shown that these students may exhibit deficits in a specific academic skill. For example, a recent study found that approximately 15% of children and adolescents classified as having ADHD presented with profiles similar to students classified as having reading disorders.
In addition to developmentally inappropriate patterns of behavior, some students classified as having ADHD also exhibit academic difficulties. Researchers who have examined the educational performance of students classified as having ADHD have suggested that they may be more likely than students without disabilities to achieve lower grades in academic subjects and lower scores on standardized tests of reading and math.
In spelling, some studies that have controlled for IQ differences have found that students classified as having ADHD score lower on standardized measures of spelling than their nondisabled peers. In math, studies have shown that students classified as having ADHD performed significantly lower than their peers without ADHD on timed tasks of math calculation, even when differences in IQ were controlled.
In addition to specific problems with one academic area such as reading, spelling, or math, researchers have reported that students classified as having ADHD exhibit handwriting difficulties; however, the reasons for these difficulties may be confounded by other factors. When controlling for visual-motor skill, for example, differences in handwriting errors between students classified as having ADHD and non-ADHD students were not significant.
References
Richard L Sparks, James Javorsky, Lois Philips. ‘College Students Classified with ADHD and the Foreign Language Requirement’ Journal of Learning Disabilities. Austin: Mar/Apr 2004. Vol. 37, Iss. 2; pg. 169, 10
SUMMARY
It is important that all teachers within all environments are aware of the positive and negative effects of all methodologies currently being utilised within their classroom. This awareness will then enable teachers to structure learning experiences to meet the needs of all individuals while fulfilling the requirements of the curriculum and maintaining student safety. It is important that teachers are able to utilise a variety of methodologies within their teaching in order to cater for individual learning preferences and further develop all individuals within all aspects of their lives. It is important that teachers are able to utilise the correct methodology at the appropriate time in order to enhance student development, maintain student discipline and student safety while meeting the needs and requirements of the curriculum.
Quiz
Picture References (all last viewed 10/6/04)
http://www.dadalos.org/coe/images/an_out4.gif
http://www.saeps.vic.edu.au/StAlbCurr/six_hats.gif
http://www.cartoonstock.com/lowres/amc0357l.jpg
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/stuwork/dc2.jpg
http://images.google.com.au/images?q=cartoon+teachers&ie=ISO-8859-1&hl=en
http://schools.nycenet.edu/d75/P168X/Images/MomentsInTime/images1960-70/art1.jpg
http://www.longman.com/exams/ngraphics/stips_students2.gif
http://www.ed.gov/inits/americareads/images/grad.jpg
http://www.longman.com/exams/ngraphics/stips_student1.gif
http://tti.tamu.edu/inside/centers/cpd/news/newsletters/images/cartoon_class.gif
http://www.uom.ac.mu/Campuslife/clubs/ACDC/images/cartoons/lecture.gif
http://www.siouxcitylibrary.org/images/events6.gif
http://www.nald.ca/PROVINCE/BC/nanaimo/newslett/summer00/math.jpg
Intext References
http://cte.udel.edu/pbl.htm
http://cte.udel.edu/learnstyle.htm
http://www.pbli.org/pbl/pbl.htm
http://www.stbrigev.adl.catholic.edu.au/methodology.htm
http://www.dmu.ac.uk/~jamesa/learning/bloomtax.htm
http://www.betterthanabook.net/98.htm
Quiz
Picture References (all last viewed 10/6/04)
http://www.dadalos.org/coe/images/an_out4.gif
http://www.saeps.vic.edu.au/StAlbCurr/six_hats.gif
http://www.cartoonstock.com/lowres/amc0357l.jpg
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/stuwork/dc2.jpg
http://images.google.com.au/images?q=cartoon+teachers&ie=ISO-8859-1&hl=en
http://schools.nycenet.edu/d75/P168X/Images/MomentsInTime/images1960-70/art1.jpg
http://www.longman.com/exams/ngraphics/stips_students2.gif
http://www.ed.gov/inits/americareads/images/grad.jpg
http://www.longman.com/exams/ngraphics/stips_student1.gif
http://tti.tamu.edu/inside/centers/cpd/news/newsletters/images/cartoon_class.gif
http://www.uom.ac.mu/Campuslife/clubs/ACDC/images/cartoons/lecture.gif
http://www.siouxcitylibrary.org/images/events6.gif
http://www.nald.ca/PROVINCE/BC/nanaimo/newslett/summer00/math.jpg
Intext References
http://cte.udel.edu/pbl.htm
http://cte.udel.edu/learnstyle.htm
http://www.pbli.org/pbl/pbl.htm
http://www.stbrigev.adl.catholic.edu.au/methodology.htm
http://www.dmu.ac.uk/~jamesa/learning/bloomtax.htm
http://www.betterthanabook.net/98.htm